A B S T R A C T Green city is one of the approaches to sustainable development. “green city” is an environmentally friendly city compatible with the concept of sustainable development and can be used for the welfare and security of its inhabitants. Based on the concept of a “green city,” urban managers try to have the least destructive effect on the ecosystems upon which cities rely. Green city is one of the sustainable development approaches that reduce the environmental footprint of cities. The purpose of this study is to evaluate the situation of Mashhad metropolis in terms of the objective characteristics of the green city. In this study, 14 indicators of electricity consumption per capita, green space per capita, population density, water availability, sewage availability, superior public transportation network, urban mass transportation, traffic reduction, annual production waste per capita, carbon monoxide, concentration nitrogen dioxide, sulfur dioxide concentration, particulate matter concentration, and air quality were exerted. To determine the importance of research indicators, the Shannon entropy method, and the status of Mashhad city areas in terms of green city indicators, the VIKOR multi-criteria decision-making method has been applied. The results showed that most areas of Mashhad are average and below average in terms of green city characteristics, and only District 9 is in very good condition (0.636). Also, based on the results of this part of the research, District 5, with the value of VIKOR index of 0.969, is in the last rank in terms of objective characteristics of the green city Extended Abstract Introduction Green city is one of the approaches to sustainable development. A “Green city” is an environmentally friendly city compatible with the concept of sustainable development and can be used for the welfare and security of its inhabitants. Based on the concept of a “green city,” urban managers try to have the least destructive effect on the ecosystems upon which cities rely. Green cities constantly try to manage their environmental effects by reducing waste, increasing recycling, reducing air pollution, increasing population density, developing open urban spaces, and encouraging the development of sustainable local businesses. Green cities were first used to evaluate 30 European cities by the Economist Intelligence Unit (EIU) in 2009 with the financial support of Siemens and the aim of reducing the environmental effects of human activities in cities. In that study, eight indices of carbon dioxide, energy, construction, transportation, water, recycling and land use, air quality, and environmental governance were used. Later, the Economist Intelligence Unit, with the financial support of Siemens, evaluated the status of the green city index in 17 Latin American cities, 15 African cities, 22 major Asian cities, and 27 cities in United States, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand. In recent years, even some Western Islamic scholars have, in various publications, shown that Islam is an ecological religion. In Iran, the issue of protecting the environment has not received much attention regardless of its rich cultural and religious background and its confirmation in Article 50 of the Constitution of the Islamic Republic of Iran. Mashhad is the second metropolis of Iran, located in North-East of Iran, and is one of the counties of Khorasan Razavi Province. According to the 2016 Iranian Population and Housing Census, its population was 3057679 people (The Vice-Presidency of Planning and Development of Mashhad Municipality). In Mashhad, due to several reasons including the presence of Imam Reza Shrine (PBUH) and arrival of millions of pilgrims per year, population growth, increased garbage production (production of 896534 tons of garbage in 2016 (The Vice-Presidency of Planning and Development of Mashhad Municipality), air pollution (increased number of unhealthy days from 46 days per year in 2015 to 88 days in 2016 for sensitive groups and 4 days of unhealthy air for all groups in 2016 (Center for Monitoring Environmental Pollutants of Mashhad Municipality) the 2025 vision of the city has paid attention to the environment in the form of five general objectives; however, just like the national level, no specific pattern for environmentally-compatible urban development, such as green city, is determined. Analysis of the green city index in Mashhad metropolis can considerably contribute to urban managers and planners in addition to providing a pattern for evaluating the present situation in other cities of Iran and improving the quality of life regardless of the current status of the urban environment in Iranian cities; we can preserve these environments as parts of the natural environment for future generations.   Methodology In terms of its goal, the present study is an applied one; in the study, drawing upon other studies and library sources and considering the conditions of Iran and the metropolis of Mashhad in terms of green city, 14 quantitative indices were exerted. To this end, the required data for the quantitative indices was gathered by library research from the relevant institutions. Next, the weights of quantitative indices were determined using Shannon's entropy. Then, using the VIKOR method of multi-criteria decision-making, the status of various districts of the metropolis of Mashhad in terms of quantitative indices of green city was determined. Finally, the map of the spatial distribution of quantitative indices was drawn using the ARC GIS software package.   Results and discussion In this study, to analyze the status of the metropolis of Mashhad in terms of green city features, 14 quantitative indices were used. Considering the value of the VIKOR index ranges from 0 to 1, various districts of Mashhad can be classified into five categories; very satisfactory, satisfactory, average, unsatisfactory, and very unsatisfactory in terms of quantitative indices of green city. The results of the current situation of Mashhad showed that in terms of objective indicators of the green city, District 9 of Mashhad metropolis with a value of VIKOR index of 0.056 is in first place, and the seventh region with a value of VIKOR index of 0.433 is in second place. Also, based on the results of this part of the research, District 5, with the value of VIKOR index of 0.969, is in the last rank in terms of objective characteristics of the green city.   Conclusion Similarly, the results of studies by Afshar (2011) and Shabani et al. (2017) on Tehran metropolis are indicative of the unsatisfactory situation of Tehran (the biggest metropolis of Iran) in terms of green city features. Comparing the results of the studies by Afshar (2011) and Shabani et al. (2017) with the present study on Mashhad (the second biggest metropolis of Iran) reveals the necessity for a comprehensive plan toward achieving green cities. It should be mentioned that, due to the specific conditions of Mashhad metropolis and availability or unavailability of the required data, the indices used in the present study are somewhat different from the ones used by Afshar (2011) and Shabani et al. (2017).   Funding There is no funding support.   Authors’ Contribution All of the authors approved the content of the manuscript and agreed on all aspects of the work.     Conflict of Interest Authors declared no conflict of interest.   Acknowledgments We are grateful to all the scientific

The doctrine that the content of the conclusion of a deductively valid argument is included in the content of its premises, taken jointly, is a familiar one. It has important consequences for the question of what value valid arguments possess, since it indicates the poverty of three traditional answers: that arguments may and should be used as instruments of persuasion, that they may and should be used as instruments of justification; and that they may and should be used to advance knowledge. The truth is, however, that in each of these cases the argument has only a managerial role and, if there is any work done, it is the premises that do it. It will be maintained that this point has little force against the critical rationalist answer, which I shall defend, that the principal purpose of deductive reasoning from an assemblage of premises is the exploration of their content, facilitating their criticism and rejection. That said, the main aim of the present paper is not to promote critical rationalism but to consider some published objections to the doctrine that a statement asserts every statement that is validly deducible from it. The alleged counterexamples to be considered fall roughly into two groups: statements that emerge with time from a rich mathematical or empirical theory, but were originally unformulated and are deducible from the theory only in a non-trivial way (Frederick 2011, 2014; Williamson 2012); and statements, notably disjunctions, that are easily formulated and are deducible from a theory in a trivial way (Schurz & Weingartner 1987; Mura 1990, 2008; Gemes 1994; Yablo 2014). Each of these counterexamples will be evaluated and dismissed.

امروزه واژه "objective" به "عینی" و واژه "subjective" به "ذهنی" ترجمه می شود. اما این دو واژه از ابتدای کاربرد آن در قرون وسطی (از زمان دنس اسکاتس) معنایی کاملاً ضد معنای امروزین خود را داشته اند. بدین ترتیب که واژه "objective" به معنای "ذهنی" و واژه "subjective" به معنای "عینی" به کار رفته است. این معانی _ که امروزه کاملاً غریب و دور از ذهن می نماید _ تا چند قرن بعد، یعنی حدود قرن نوزدهم، در میان فیلسوفان غرب به ویژه دکارت و فیلسوفان هم عصر وی، مانند اسپینوزا و بارکلی، کاملاً رایج بوده است. هدف از این مقاله ذکر شواهد و دلایل این نکته است که واژه "objective" در فلسفه دکارت _ که از اصطلاحات کلیدی فلسفه اوست _ (و نیز فیلسوفان دیگرتا قرن نوزدهم) به معنای "ذهنی" بوده است و به هیچ وجه نباید آن را با معنای امروزین آن (یعنی "عینی") خلط کرد.

This paper examines the work of Immanuel Kant in the light of a new theory on the nature of truth, knowledge and falsehood (the Inversion Theory of Truth). Kant’s idea that knowledge could be absolutely certain, and that its truth must correspond with reality, is discredited by a dissection of the Correspondence Theory of Truth. This examination of the nature of truth, as well as knowledge and falsehood, is conducted with reference to Sir Karl Popper’s writings on regulative ideas, the criterion of demarcation and the principle of falsifiability. It is argued that if truth is to be regarded as certain, it should be used to describe objects and events in the objective (noumenal) state, and that subjective knowledge must contain (and is improved by) falsehood. Perceptions and knowledge are obtained by the biological and evolutionary process of Active Subjectivism. Ideas we have knowledge of can be metaphysical or scientific, according to Popper’s Criterion of Demarcation. Kant’s “Copernican revolution” claim that our intellect imposes absolutely true laws on nature could not allow for the possibility that ideas might be constructed from fallible perceptions, and hence that all knowledge is uncertain. Instead, he developed a Critique of Practical Reason in which religion, though not provable through logical reasoning, could be proved by our innate moral sense, giving us a Categorical Imperative that could lead to perverse results. By rejecting the absolute certainty of a priori knowledge, and admitting a degree of essential falsehood, we arrive at a more reasonable grounding for moral behavior.

جامعه علمی، مانند هر اجتماع دیگری، متشکل از ساختار های اجتماعی مربوط به خود است که برای شناختن آن می بایست، به شناختن موضوعاتی مثل سیر تکامل تاریخی آن، ساختار علم و. . . همت گماشت. در همین رابطه، مطلبی که از اهمیت ویژه ای برخوردار است مساله هنجار ها در علم-مجموعه ای از ارزش های بنیادین حاکم بر جامعه های علمی_ است. هنجار ها در علم از آن جهت مهم هستند که به عقیده برخی ساختار رفتار در جامعه علمی را توصیف می کنند. نسبت به مساله هنجار ها در علم، رویکرد های متفاوتی وجود دارد. دو نظریه مهم در این بین عبارت اند از دو نظریه ای که کارل پوپر و دیوید بلور به آن ها پرداخته اند: الف) هنجارها در علم حاصل توافقی اجتماعی اند. (بلور، 1991) و ب) هنجارها در علم اموری انتزاعی و افلاطونی هستند. (پوپر، 1972) در این نوشتار قصد دارم علاوه بر شرحی کلی بر نظریات پوپر و بلور، انتقاداتی که از سوی مدافعین پوپر بر بلور وارد شده است را بررسی نمایم.

سابقیت علم الهی بر وجود عینی ممکنات، از جمله مباحثی است که می توان تمامی هستی شناسان الهی بر آن اتفاق نظر دارند. در نگاه مشائی، سلسله علی و معلولی موجودات که در نهایت به خداوند متعال منتهی می شود، وجودات عینی را تشکیل می دهد. خداوند سبحان که علت العلل این نظام علی و معلولی است با علم به ذات خویش، عالم به تمامی ممکنات است. بر مبنای دیدگاه حکمت متعالیه که وجود، تنها امر اصیل و عینی است، وجود عینی، سلسله ای مشکک از موجودات ممکن به امکان فقری را شامل می شود که در نهایت به حق تعالی به عنوان تنها وجود عینی مستقل بالذات، منتهی می گردند. اما در نگرش عرفانی که وجود عینی و حقیقی، منحصر در ذات حق تعالی است و تمامی ممکنات، مجالی و شئون او هستند، بحث از تقدم مظاهر علمی حق بر مجالی عینی و خلقی اوست. پژوهش حاضر، درصدد بررسی چگونگی تقدم وجود علمی بر وجود عینی از منظر دو مکتب فلسفی مشاء و حکمت متعالیه و مبانی عرفانی است.

The focus of this study is primarily on “the discrepancy in mentality as an important factor affecting family problems and divorce”. For this purpose, some minor studies were conducted each of which experimentally examined different aspects of mental discrepancy in Iranian families. Almost all of these studies showed that permanent disputes and divorces resulted from the differences in their world-views, thinkings, and impressions in their mutual affairs. At last, the theory of Homogamy with two major revisions were used to explain the reasons and causes of family problems and divorce which were confirmed in minor studies and cases.